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Semantic Web

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the concept based around machine-readability for the World Wide Web. For the concept of a World Wide Web based on public blockchains also called Web 3.0, see <a href="Web3" title="Web3">Web3</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:19.0em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;border-bottom:#fafafa solid 1px;"><a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;font-size:105%;">

<div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li><li><a href="Formal_semantics_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (logic)">Logical</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;">

Subfields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lexis_(linguistics)" title="Lexis (linguistics)">Lexis</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexicology" title="Lexicology">Lexicology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_semantics" title="Statistical semantics">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_semantics" title="Structural semantics">Structural</a></li></ul>

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Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Semantic_analysis_(linguistics)" title="Semantic analysis (linguistics)">Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Compositionality" class="mw-redirect" title="Compositionality">Compositionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Context" title="Context">Context</a>

<ul><li><a href="Prototype_theory" title="Prototype theory">Prototype theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Force_dynamics" title="Force dynamics">Force dynamics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_feature" title="Semantic feature">Semantic feature</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_gap" title="Semantic gap">Semantic gap</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a></li></ul></td>

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Analysis</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Latent_semantic_analysis" title="Latent semantic analysis">Latent</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_analysis_(computational)" title="Semantic analysis (computational)">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning)" title="Semantic analysis (machine learning)">Machine learning</a></li></ul>

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Applications</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Semantic_desktop" title="Semantic desktop">Desktop</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_file_system" title="Semantic file system">File system</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_matching" title="Semantic matching">Matching</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Parsing</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_query" title="Semantic query">Querying</a>

<ul>

<li><a href="Semantic_similarity" title="Semantic similarity">Similarity</a></li></ul></td>

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</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;font-size:105%;">

<a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics of programming languages</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;">

Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Action_semantics" title="Action semantics">Action</a></li>

<li><a href="Algebraic_semantics_(computer_science)" title="Algebraic semantics (computer science)">Algebraic</a></li>

<li><a href="Axiomatic_semantics" title="Axiomatic semantics">Axiomatic</a></li>

<li><a href="Categorical_logic" title="Categorical logic">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrency_semantics" title="Concurrency semantics">Concurrency</a></li>

<li><a href="Denotational_semantics" title="Denotational semantics">Denotational</a></li>

<li><a href="Operational_semantics" title="Operational semantics">Operational</a></li>

<li><a href="Predicate_transformer_semantics" title="Predicate transformer semantics">Predicate transformational</a></li></ul>

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Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_interpretation" title="Abstract interpretation">Abstract interpretation</a></li>

<li><a href="Abstract_semantic_graph" title="Abstract semantic graph">Abstract semantic graph</a></li></ul></td>

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<ul><li><a href="Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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The Semantic Web, sometimes known as Web 3.0, is an extension of the <a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> through standards<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> set by the <a href="World_Wide_Web_Consortium" title="World Wide Web Consortium">World Wide Web Consortium</a> (W3C). The goal of the Semantic Web is to make <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> data <a href="Machine-readable" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine-readable">machine-readable</a>.

To enable the encoding of <a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> with the data, technologies such as <a href="Resource_Description_Framework" title="Resource Description Framework">Resource Description Framework</a> (RDF)<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and <a href="Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">Web Ontology Language</a> (OWL)<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> are used. These technologies are used to formally represent <a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a>. For example, <a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontology</a> can describe <a href="Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>, relationships between <a href="Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">entities</a>, and categories of things. These embedded semantics offer significant advantages such as <a href="Reasoning_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning engine">reasoning</a> over data and operating with heterogeneous data sources.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

These standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on the Web, fundamentally the RDF. According to the W3C, "The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries."<a href="#cite_note-W3C-SWA-5">[5]</a> The Semantic Web is therefore regarded as an integrator across different content and information applications and systems.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

The term was coined by <a href="Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> for a web of data (or data web)<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> that can be processed by machines<a href="#cite_note-Berners-Lee-7">[7]</a>—that is, one in which much of the <a href="Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meaning</a> is <a href="Machine-readable_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine-readable data">machine-readable</a>. While its critics have questioned its feasibility, proponents argue that applications in <a href="Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">library</a> and <a href="Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>, industry, <a href="Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and <a href="Human_science" title="Human science">human sciences</a> research have already proven the validity of the original concept.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

Berners-Lee originally expressed his vision of the Semantic Web in 1999 as follows:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analyzing all the data on the Web – the content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A "Semantic Web", which makes this possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The "<a href="Intelligent_agent" title="Intelligent agent">intelligent agents</a>" people have touted for ages will finally materialize.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></blockquote>

The 2001 <a href="Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> article by Berners-Lee, <a href="James_Hendler" title="James Hendler">Hendler</a>, and <a href="Ora_Lassila" title="Ora Lassila">Lassila</a> described an expected evolution of the existing Web to a Semantic Web.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that: "This simple idea…remains largely unrealized".<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

In 2013, more than four million Web domains (out of roughly 250 million total) contained Semantic Web markup.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example">Example</h2></div>

In the following example, the text "Paul Schuster was born in Dresden" on a website will be annotated, connecting a person with their place of birth. The following <a href="HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> fragment shows how a small graph is being described, in <a href="RDFa" title="RDFa">RDFa</a>-syntax using a <a href="Schema.org" title="Schema.org">schema.org</a> vocabulary and a <a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a> ID:

<span property="name">Paul Schuster</span> was born in

<span property="name">Dresden</span>.

</span>

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</pre></div>

The example defines the following five <a href="Semantic_triple" title="Semantic triple">triples</a> (shown in <a href="Turtle_(syntax)" title="Turtle (syntax)">Turtle</a> syntax). Each triple represents one edge in the resulting graph: the first element of the triple (the subject) is the name of the node where the edge starts, the second element (the predicate) the type of the edge, and the last and third element (the object) either the name of the node where the edge ends or a literal value (e.g. a text, a number, etc.).

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-turtle mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre> _:a <https://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type> <https://schema.org/Person> .

_:a <https://schema.org/name> "Paul Schuster" .

_:a <https://schema.org/birthPlace> <https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731> .

<https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731> <https://schema.org/itemtype> <https://schema.org/Place> .

<https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731> <https://schema.org/name> "Dresden" .

</pre></div>

The triples result in the graph shown in <a href="#graph1">the given figure</a>.

One of the advantages of using <a href="Uniform_Resource_Identifier" title="Uniform Resource Identifier">Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)</a> is that they can be dereferenced using the <a href="HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> protocol. According to the so-called <a href="Linked_Open_Data" class="mw-redirect" title="Linked Open Data">Linked Open Data</a> principles, such a dereferenced URI should result in a document that offers further data about the given URI. In this example, all URIs, both for edges and nodes (e.g. <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">http://schema.org/Person</code>, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">http://schema.org/birthPlace</code>, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731</code>) can be dereferenced and will result in further RDF graphs, describing the URI, e.g. that Dresden is a city in Germany, or that a person, in the sense of that URI, can be fictional.

The second graph shows the previous example, but now enriched with a few of the triples from the documents that result from dereferencing <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">https://schema.org/Person</code> (green edge) and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731</code> (blue edges).

Additionally to the edges given in the involved documents explicitly, edges can be automatically inferred: the triple

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-turtle mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre> _:a <https://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type> <http://schema.org/Person> .

</pre></div>

from the original RDFa fragment and the triple

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-turtle mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre> <https://schema.org/Person> <http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#equivalentClass> <http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/Person> .

</pre></div>

from the document at <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">https://schema.org/Person</code> (green edge in the figure) allow to infer the following triple, given <a href="Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">OWL</a> semantics (red dashed line in the second Figure):

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-turtle mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre> _:a <https://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type> <http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/Person> .

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Semantic_network#History" title="Semantic network">Semantic network § History</a></div>

The concept of the <a href="Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">semantic network</a> model was formed in the early 1960s by researchers such as the <a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive scientist</a> <a href="Allan_M._Collins" title="Allan M. Collins">Allan M. Collins</a>, <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguist</a> Ross Quillian and <a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologist</a> <a href="Elizabeth_F._Loftus" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth F. Loftus">Elizabeth F. Loftus</a> as a form to represent semantically structured knowledge. When applied in the context of the modern internet, it extends the network of <a href="Hyperlink" title="Hyperlink">hyperlinked</a> human-readable <a href="Web_pages" class="mw-redirect" title="Web pages">web pages</a> by inserting machine-readable metadata about pages and how they are related to each other. This enables <a href="Web_crawler" title="Web crawler">automated agents</a> to access the Web more intelligently and perform more tasks on behalf of users. The term "Semantic Web" was coined by <a href="Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Berners-Lee-7">[7]</a> the inventor of the World Wide Web and director of the World Wide Web Consortium ("<a href="W3C" class="mw-redirect" title="W3C">W3C</a>"), which oversees the development of proposed Semantic Web standards. He defines the Semantic Web as "a web of data that can be processed directly and indirectly by machines".

Many of the technologies proposed by the W3C already existed before they were positioned under the W3C umbrella. These are used in various contexts, particularly those dealing with information that encompasses a limited and defined domain, and where sharing data is a common necessity, such as scientific research or data exchange among businesses. In addition, other technologies with similar goals have emerged, such as <a href="Microformat" title="Microformat">microformats</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations_of_HTML">Limitations of HTML</h3></div>

Many files on a typical computer can be loosely divided into either human-readable documents, or machine-readable data. Examples of human-readable document files are mail messages, reports, and brochures. Examples of machine-readable data files are calendars, address books, playlists, and spreadsheets, which are presented to a user using an application program that lets the files be viewed, searched, and combined.

Currently, the World Wide Web is based mainly on documents written in <a href="Hypertext_Markup_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Markup Language">Hypertext Markup Language</a> (HTML), a markup convention that is used for coding a body of text interspersed with multimedia objects such as images and interactive forms. Metadata tags provide a method by which computers can categorize the content of web pages. In the examples below, the field names "keywords", "description" and "author" are assigned values such as "computing", and "cheap widgets for sale" and "John Doe".

</pre></div>

Because of this metadata tagging and categorization, other computer systems that want to access and share this data can easily identify the relevant values.

With HTML and a tool to render it (perhaps <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> software, perhaps another <a href="User_agent" title="User agent">user agent</a>), one can create and present a page that lists items for sale. The HTML of this catalog page can make simple, document-level assertions such as "this document's title is 'Widget Superstore'", but there is no capability within the HTML itself to assert unambiguously that, for example, item number X586172 is an Acme Gizmo with a retail price of €199, or that it is a consumer product. Rather, HTML can only say that the span of text "X586172" is something that should be positioned near "Acme Gizmo" and "€199", etc. There is no way to say "this is a catalog" or even to establish that "Acme Gizmo" is a kind of title or that "€199" is a price. There is also no way to express that these pieces of information are bound together in describing a discrete item, distinct from other items perhaps listed on the page.

<a href="Semantic_HTML" title="Semantic HTML">Semantic HTML</a> refers to the traditional HTML practice of markup following intention, rather than specifying layout details directly. For example, the use of <code class="nowrap" style=""></code> denoting "emphasis" rather than <code class="nowrap" style=""></code>, which specifies <a href="Italics" class="mw-redirect" title="Italics">italics</a>. Layout details are left up to the browser, in combination with <a href="Cascading_Style_Sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Cascading Style Sheets">Cascading Style Sheets</a>. But this practice falls short of specifying the semantics of objects such as items for sale or prices.

Microformats extend HTML syntax to create <a href="Machine-readable_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine-readable data">machine-readable</a> semantic markup about objects including people, organizations, events and products.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Similar initiatives include <a href="RDFa" title="RDFa">RDFa</a>, <a href="Microdata_(HTML)" title="Microdata (HTML)">Microdata</a> and <a href="Schema.org" title="Schema.org">Schema.org</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantic_Web_solutions">Semantic Web solutions</h3></div>

The Semantic Web takes the solution further. It involves publishing in languages specifically designed for data: <a href="Resource_Description_Framework" title="Resource Description Framework">Resource Description Framework</a> (RDF), <a href="Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">Web Ontology Language</a> (OWL), and Extensible Markup Language (<a href="XML" title="XML">XML</a>). HTML describes documents and the links between them. RDF, OWL, and XML, by contrast, can describe arbitrary things such as people, meetings, or airplane parts.

These technologies are combined in order to provide descriptions that supplement or replace the content of Web documents. Thus, content may manifest itself as descriptive data stored in Web-accessible <a href="Database" title="Database">databases</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> or as markup within documents (particularly, in Extensible HTML (<a href="XHTML" title="XHTML">XHTML</a>) interspersed with XML, or, more often, purely in XML, with layout or rendering cues stored separately). The machine-readable descriptions enable content managers to add meaning to the content, i.e., to describe the structure of the knowledge we have about that content. In this way, a machine can process knowledge itself, instead of text, using processes similar to human <a href="Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a> and <a href="Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>, thereby obtaining more meaningful results and helping computers to perform automated information gathering and research.

An example of a tag that would be used in a non-semantic web page:

</pre></div>

Encoding similar information in a semantic web page might look like this:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-xml mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><item rdf:about="https://example.org/semantic-web/">Semantic Web</item>

</pre></div>

Tim Berners-Lee calls the resulting network of <a href="Linked_Data" class="mw-redirect" title="Linked Data">Linked Data</a> the <a href="Giant_Global_Graph" title="Giant Global Graph">Giant Global Graph</a>, in contrast to the HTML-based World Wide Web. Berners-Lee posits that if the past was document sharing, the future is <a href="Data_sharing" title="Data sharing">data sharing</a>. His answer to the question of "how" provides three points of instruction. One, a URL should point to the data. Two, anyone accessing the URL should get data back. Three, relationships in the data should point to additional URLs with data.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tags_and_identifiers">Tags and identifiers</h4></div>

<a href="Tag_(metadata)" title="Tag (metadata)">Tags</a>, including hierarchical categories and tags that are collaboratively added and maintained (e.g. with <a href="Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">folksonomies</a>) can be considered part of, of potential use to or a step towards the semantic Web vision.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

Unique <a href="Identifier" title="Identifier">identifiers</a>, including hierarchical categories and collaboratively added ones, analysis tools and <a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a>, including tags, can be used to create forms of semantic webs – webs that are to a certain degree semantic.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In particular, such has been used for structuring scientific research i.a. by research topics and <a href="Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">scientific fields</a> by the projects <a href="OpenAlex" title="OpenAlex">OpenAlex</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a> and <a href="Scholia" title="Scholia">Scholia</a> which are under development and provide <a href="API" title="API">APIs</a>, Web-pages, feeds and graphs for various <a href="Semantic_query" title="Semantic query">semantic queries</a>.

Tim Berners-Lee has described the Semantic Web as a component of Web 3.0.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">People keep asking what Web 3.0 is. I think maybe when you've got an overlay of <a href="Scalable_vector_graphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalable vector graphics">scalable vector graphics</a> – everything rippling and folding and looking misty – on <a href="Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a> and access to a semantic Web integrated across a huge space of data, you'll have access to an unbelievable data resource …</blockquote><div class="templatequotecite">— Tim Berners-Lee, 2006</div>

"Semantic Web" is sometimes used as a synonym for "Web 3.0",<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> though the definition of each term varies.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beyond_Web_3.0">Beyond Web 3.0</h3></div>

The next generation of the Web is often termed Web 4.0, but its definition is not clear. According to some sources, it is a Web that involves <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> the <a href="Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">internet of things</a>, <a href="Pervasive_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Pervasive computing">pervasive computing</a>, <a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">ubiquitous computing</a> and the <a href="Web_of_Things" title="Web of Things">Web of Things</a> among other concepts.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> According to the European Union, Web 4.0 is "the expected fourth generation of the World Wide Web. Using advanced artificial and ambient intelligence, the internet of things, trusted blockchain transactions, virtual worlds and XR capabilities, digital and real objects and environments are fully integrated and communicate with each other, enabling truly intuitive, immersive experiences, seamlessly blending the physical and digital worlds".<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2></div>

Some of the challenges for the Semantic Web include vastness, vagueness, uncertainty, inconsistency, and deceit. <a href="Automated_reasoning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated reasoning system">Automated reasoning systems</a> will have to deal with all of these issues in order to deliver on the promise of the Semantic Web.

<ul><li>Vastness: The World Wide Web contains many billions of pages. The <a href="SNOMED_CT" title="SNOMED CT">SNOMED CT</a> <a href="Medical_terminology" title="Medical terminology">medical terminology</a> <a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontology</a> alone contains 370,000 <a href="Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">class</a> names, and existing technology has not yet been able to eliminate all semantically duplicated terms. Any automated reasoning system will have to deal with truly huge inputs.</li>

<li>Vagueness: These are imprecise concepts like "young" or "tall". This arises from the vagueness of user queries, of concepts represented by content providers, of matching query terms to provider terms and of trying to combine different <a href="Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">knowledge bases</a> with overlapping but subtly different concepts. <a href="Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a> is the most common technique for dealing with vagueness.</li>

<li>Uncertainty: These are precise concepts with uncertain values. For example, a patient might present a set of symptoms that correspond to a number of different distinct diagnoses each with a different probability. <a href="Probabilistic_logic" title="Probabilistic logic">Probabilistic</a> reasoning techniques are generally employed to address uncertainty.</li>

<li>Inconsistency: These are logical contradictions that will inevitably arise during the development of large ontologies, and when ontologies from separate sources are combined. Deductive reasoning fails catastrophically when faced with inconsistency, because <a href="Principle_of_explosion" title="Principle of explosion">"anything follows from a contradiction"</a>. <a href="Defeasible_reasoning" title="Defeasible reasoning">Defeasible reasoning</a> and <a href="Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">paraconsistent reasoning</a> are two techniques that can be employed to deal with inconsistency.</li>

<li>Deceit: This is when the producer of the information is intentionally misleading the consumer of the information. <a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a> techniques are currently utilized to alleviate this threat. By providing a means to determine the information's integrity, including that which relates to the identity of the entity that produced or published the information, however <a href="Credibility" title="Credibility">credibility</a> issues still have to be addressed in cases of potential deceit.</li></ul>

This list of challenges is illustrative rather than exhaustive, and it focuses on the challenges to the "unifying logic" and "proof" layers of the Semantic Web. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Incubator Group for Uncertainty Reasoning for the World Wide Web<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> (URW3-XG) final report lumps these problems together under the single heading of "uncertainty".<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Many of the techniques mentioned here will require extensions to the Web Ontology Language (OWL) for example to annotate conditional probabilities. This is an area of active research.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards">Standards</h2></div>

Standardization for Semantic Web in the context of Web 3.0 is under the care of W3C.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Components">Components</h3></div>

The term "Semantic Web" is often used more specifically to refer to the formats and technologies that enable it.<a href="#cite_note-W3C-SWA-5">[5]</a> The collection, structuring and recovery of linked data are enabled by technologies that provide a <a href="Description_logic" title="Description logic">formal description</a> of concepts, terms, and relationships within a given <a href="Knowledge_domain" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge domain">knowledge domain</a>. These technologies are specified as W3C standards and include:

<ul><li><a href="Resource_Description_Framework" title="Resource Description Framework">Resource Description Framework</a> (RDF), a general method for describing information</li>

<li><a href="RDF_Schema" title="RDF Schema">RDF Schema</a> (RDFS)</li>

<li><a href="Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System" title="Simple Knowledge Organization System">Simple Knowledge Organization System</a> (SKOS)</li>

<li><a href="SPARQL" title="SPARQL">SPARQL</a>, an RDF query language</li>

<li><a href="Notation3" title="Notation3">Notation3</a> (N3), designed with human readability in mind</li>

<li><a href="N-Triples" title="N-Triples">N-Triples</a>, a format for storing and transmitting data</li>

<li><a href="Turtle_(syntax)" title="Turtle (syntax)">Turtle</a> (Terse RDF Triple Language)</li>

<li><a href="Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">Web Ontology Language</a> (OWL), a family of <a href="Knowledge_representation_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation language">knowledge representation languages</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule_Interchange_Format" title="Rule Interchange Format">Rule Interchange Format</a> (RIF), a framework of web rule language dialects supporting rule interchange on the Web</li>

<li><a href="JSON-LD" title="JSON-LD">JavaScript Object Notation for Linked Data</a> (JSON-LD), a JSON-based method to describe data</li>

<li><a href="ActivityPub" title="ActivityPub">ActivityPub</a>, a generic way for client and server to communicate with each other. This is used by the popular decentralized social network <a href="Mastodon_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastodon (software)">Mastodon</a>.</li></ul>

The <a href="Semantic_Web_Stack" title="Semantic Web Stack">Semantic Web Stack</a> illustrates the architecture of the Semantic Web. The functions and relationships of the components can be summarized as follows:<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<ul><li>XML provides an elemental syntax for content structure within documents, yet associates no semantics with the meaning of the content contained within. XML is not at present a necessary component of Semantic Web technologies in most cases, as alternative syntaxes exist, such as <a href="Turtle_(syntax)" title="Turtle (syntax)">Turtle</a>. Turtle is a de facto standard, but has not been through a formal standardization process.</li>

<li><a href="W3C_XML_Schema" class="mw-redirect" title="W3C XML Schema">XML Schema</a> is a language for providing and restricting the structure and content of elements contained within XML documents.</li>

<li>RDF is a simple language for expressing <a href="Data_model" title="Data model">data models</a>, which refer to objects ("<a href="Web_resource" title="Web resource">web resources</a>") and their relationships. An RDF-based model can be represented in a variety of syntaxes, e.g., <a href="RDF/XML" title="RDF/XML">RDF/XML</a>, N3, Turtle, and RDFa. RDF is a fundamental standard of the Semantic Web.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></li>

<li>RDF Schema extends RDF and is a vocabulary for describing properties and classes of RDF-based resources, with semantics for generalized-hierarchies of such properties and classes.</li>

<li>OWL adds more vocabulary for describing properties and classes: among others, relations between classes (e.g. disjointness), cardinality (e.g. "exactly one"), equality, richer typing of properties, characteristics of properties (e.g. symmetry), and enumerated classes.</li>

<li>SPARQL is a protocol and query language for semantic web data sources.</li>

<li>RIF is the W3C Rule Interchange Format. It is an XML language for expressing Web rules that computers can execute. RIF provides multiple versions, called dialects. It includes a RIF Basic Logic Dialect (RIF-BLD) and RIF Production Rules Dialect (RIF PRD).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_state_of_standardization">Current state of standardization</h3></div>

Well-established standards:

<ul><li><a href="Resource_Description_Framework" title="Resource Description Framework">RDF - Resource Description Framework</a></li>

<li><a href="RDFS" class="mw-redirect" title="RDFS">RDFS - Resource Description Framework Schema</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule_Interchange_Format" title="Rule Interchange Format"> RIF - Rule Interchange Format</a></li>

<li><a href="SPARQL" title="SPARQL"> SPARQL - 'SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language'</a></li>

<li><a href="Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_Resource_Identifier" title="Uniform Resource Identifier"> URI - Uniform Resource Identifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language"> OWL - Web Ontology Language</a></li>

<li><a href="XML" title="XML"> XML - Extensible Markup Language</a></li></ul>

Not yet fully realized:

<ul><li>Unifying Logic and Proof layers</li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Web_Rule_Language" title="Semantic Web Rule Language"> SWRL - Semantic Web Rule Language</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

The intent is to enhance the <a href="Usability" title="Usability">usability</a> and usefulness of the Web and its interconnected <a href="Resource_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource (computer science)">resources</a> by creating <a href="Semantic_web_service" title="Semantic web service">semantic web services</a>, such as:

<ul><li>Servers that expose existing data systems using the RDF and SPARQL standards. Many converters to RDF exist from different applications.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database">Relational databases</a> are an important source. The semantic web server attaches to the existing system without affecting its operation.</li>

<li>Documents "marked up" with semantic information (an <a href="Extensibility" title="Extensibility">extension</a> of the HTML <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr"><meta></code> <a href="HTML_element" title="HTML element">tags</a> used in today's Web pages to supply information for <a href="Web_search_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Web search engine">Web search engines</a> using <a href="Web_crawler" title="Web crawler">web crawlers</a>). This could be <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">machine-understandable</a> information about the human-understandable content of the document (such as the creator, title, description, etc.) or it could be purely metadata representing a set of facts (such as resources and services elsewhere on the site). Note that anything that can be identified with a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) can be described, so the semantic web can reason about animals, people, places, ideas, etc. There are four semantic annotation formats that can be used in HTML documents; Microformat, RDFa, Microdata and <a href="JSON-LD" title="JSON-LD">JSON-LD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Semantic markup is often generated automatically, rather than manually.</li></ul>

<ul><li>Common metadata vocabularies (<a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontologies</a>) and maps between vocabularies that allow document creators to know how to mark up their documents so that agents can use the information in the supplied metadata (so that Author in the sense of 'the Author of the page' will not be confused with Author in the sense of a book that is the subject of a book review).</li>

<li>Automated agents to perform tasks for users of the semantic web using this data.</li>

<li><a href="Semantic_translation" title="Semantic translation">Semantic translation</a>. An alternative or complementary approach are improvements to contextual and semantic understanding of texts – these could be aided via Semantic Web methods so that only increasingly small numbers of mistranslations need to be corrected <a href="Machine_translation#Neural_MT" title="Machine translation">in manual or semi-automated post-editing</a>.</li>

<li>Web-based services (often with agents of their own) to supply information specifically to agents, for example, a <a href="Trust_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust service">Trust service</a> that an agent could ask if some online store has a history of poor service or <a href="Spamming" title="Spamming">spamming</a>.</li>

<li>Semantic Web ideas are implemented in collaborative structured <a href="Argument_map" title="Argument map">argument mapping</a> sites where their relations are organized semantically, arguments can be mirrored (linked) to multiple places, reused (copied), rated, and <a href="Version_control_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Version control software">changed</a> as semantic distinct units. Ideas for such, or a more widely adopted "World Wide Argument Web", go back to at least 2007<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and have been implemented to some degree in <a href="Arg%C3%BCman" title="Argüman">Argüman</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and <a href="Kialo" title="Kialo">Kialo</a>. Further steps towards semantic web services may include enabling "Querying", argument search engines,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and "summarizing the contentious and agreed-upon points of a discussion".<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li></ul>

Such services could be useful to public search engines, or could be used for <a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a> within an organization. Business applications include:

<ul><li>Facilitating the integration of information from mixed sources<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></li>

<li>Dissolving ambiguities in corporate terminology</li>

<li>Improving <a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">information retrieval</a> thereby reducing <a href="Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a> and increasing the refinement and precision of the data retrieved<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></li>

<li>Identifying relevant information with respect to a given domain<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li>

<li>Providing decision making support</li></ul>

In a corporation, there is a closed group of users and the management is able to enforce company guidelines like the adoption of specific ontologies and use of <a href="Semantic_annotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic annotation">semantic annotation</a>. Compared to the public Semantic Web there are lesser requirements on <a href="Scalability" title="Scalability">scalability</a> and the information circulating within a company can be more trusted in general; privacy is less of an issue outside of handling of customer data.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Skeptical_reactions">Skeptical reactions</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_feasibility">Practical feasibility</h3></div>

Critics question the basic feasibility of a complete or even partial fulfillment of the Semantic Web, pointing out both difficulties in setting it up and a lack of general-purpose usefulness that prevents the required effort from being invested. In a 2003 paper, Marshall and Shipman point out the cognitive overhead inherent in formalizing knowledge, compared to the authoring of traditional web <a href="Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a>:<a href="#cite_note-which-46">[46]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">While learning the basics of HTML is relatively straightforward, learning a knowledge representation language or tool requires the author to learn about the representation's methods of abstraction and their effect on reasoning. For example, understanding the class-instance relationship, or the superclass-subclass relationship, is more than understanding that one concept is a "type of" another concept. [...] These abstractions are taught to computer scientists generally and knowledge engineers specifically but do not match the similar natural language meaning of being a "type of" something. Effective use of such a formal representation requires the author to become a skilled knowledge engineer in addition to any other skills required by the domain. [...] Once one has learned a formal representation language, it is still often much more effort to express ideas in that representation than in a less formal representation [...]. Indeed, this is a form of programming based on the declaration of semantic data and requires an understanding of how reasoning algorithms will interpret the authored structures.</blockquote>

According to Marshall and Shipman, the <a href="Tacit_knowledge" title="Tacit knowledge">tacit</a> and changing nature of much knowledge adds to the <a href="Knowledge_engineering" title="Knowledge engineering">knowledge engineering</a> problem, and limits the Semantic Web's applicability to specific domains. A further issue that they point out are domain- or organization-specific ways to express knowledge, which must be solved through community agreement rather than only technical means.<a href="#cite_note-which-46">[46]</a> As it turns out, specialized communities and organizations for intra-company projects have tended to adopt semantic web technologies greater than peripheral and less-specialized communities.<a href="#cite_note-Herman000-47">[47]</a> The practical constraints toward adoption have appeared less challenging where domain and scope is more limited than that of the general public and the World-Wide Web.<a href="#cite_note-Herman000-47">[47]</a>

Finally, Marshall and Shipman see pragmatic problems in the idea of (<a href="Knowledge_Navigator" title="Knowledge Navigator">Knowledge Navigator</a>-style) intelligent agents working in the largely manually curated Semantic Web:<a href="#cite_note-which-46">[46]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">In situations in which user needs are known and distributed information resources are well described, this approach can be highly effective; in situations that are not foreseen and that bring together an unanticipated array of information resources, the Google approach is more robust. Furthermore, the Semantic Web relies on inference chains that are more brittle; a missing element of the chain results in a failure to perform the desired action, while the human can supply missing pieces in a more Google-like approach. [...] cost-benefit tradeoffs can work in favor of specially-created Semantic Web metadata directed at weaving together sensible well-structured domain-specific information resources; close attention to user/customer needs will drive these federations if they are to be successful.</blockquote>

<a href="Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a>'s critique ("<a href="Metacrap" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacrap">metacrap</a>")<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> is from the perspective of human behavior and personal preferences. For example, people may include spurious metadata into Web pages in an attempt to mislead Semantic Web engines that naively assume the metadata's veracity. This phenomenon was well known with metatags that fooled the <a href="Altavista" class="mw-redirect" title="Altavista">Altavista</a> ranking algorithm into elevating the ranking of certain Web pages: the Google indexing engine specifically looks for such attempts at manipulation. <a href="Peter_G%C3%A4rdenfors" title="Peter Gärdenfors">Peter Gärdenfors</a> and <a href="Timo_Honkela" title="Timo Honkela">Timo Honkela</a> point out that logic-based semantic web technologies cover only a fraction of the relevant phenomena related to semantics.<a href="#cite_note-Gardenfors04-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Honkela08-50">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Censorship_and_privacy">Censorship and privacy</h3></div>

Enthusiasm about the semantic web could be tempered by concerns regarding <a href="Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">censorship</a> and <a href="Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a>. For instance, <a href="Intelligent_text_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent text analysis">text-analyzing</a> techniques can now be easily bypassed by using other words, metaphors for instance, or by using images in place of words. An advanced implementation of the semantic web would make it much easier for governments to control the viewing and creation of online information, as this information would be much easier for an automated content-blocking machine to understand. In addition, the issue has also been raised that, with the use of <a href="FOAF_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="FOAF (software)">FOAF</a> files and geolocation <a href="Meta-data" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-data">meta-data</a>, there would be very little anonymity associated with the authorship of articles on things such as a personal blog. Some of these concerns were addressed in the "Policy Aware Web" project<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> and is an active research and development topic.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doubling_output_formats">Doubling output formats</h3></div>

Another criticism of the semantic web is that it would be much more time-consuming to create and publish content because there would need to be two formats for one piece of data: one for human viewing and one for machines. However, many web applications in development are addressing this issue by creating a machine-readable format upon the publishing of data or the request of a machine for such data. The development of microformats has been one reaction to this kind of criticism. Another argument in defense of the feasibility of semantic web is the likely falling price of human intelligence tasks in digital labor markets, such as <a href="Amazon.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon.com">Amazon</a>'s <a href="Amazon_Mechanical_Turk" title="Amazon Mechanical Turk">Mechanical Turk</a>.

Specifications such as eRDF and RDFa allow arbitrary RDF data to be embedded in HTML pages. The <a href="GRDDL" title="GRDDL">GRDDL</a> (Gleaning Resource Descriptions from Dialects of Language) mechanism allows existing material (including microformats) to be automatically interpreted as RDF, so publishers only need to use a single format, such as HTML.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_activities_on_corporate_applications">Research activities on corporate applications</h2></div>

The first research group explicitly focusing on the Corporate Semantic Web was the ACACIA team at <a href="Institut_national_de_recherche_en_informatique_et_en_automatique" class="mw-redirect" title="Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique">INRIA-Sophia-Antipolis</a>, founded in 2002. Results of their work include the <a href="RDF_Schema" title="RDF Schema">RDF(S)</a> based Corese<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> search engine, and the application of semantic web technology in the realm of <a href="Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">distributed artificial intelligence</a> for knowledge management (e.g. ontologies and <a href="Multi-agent_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-agent systems">multi-agent systems</a> for corporate semantic Web) <a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> and <a href="E-learning" class="mw-redirect" title="E-learning">E-learning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>

Since 2008, the Corporate Semantic Web research group, located at the <a href="Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a>, focuses on building blocks: Corporate Semantic Search, Corporate Semantic Collaboration, and Corporate Ontology Engineering.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

Ontology engineering research includes the question of how to involve non-expert users in creating ontologies and semantically annotated content<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> and for extracting explicit knowledge from the interaction of users within enterprises.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_of_applications">Future of applications</h3></div>

<a href="Tim_O'Reilly" title="Tim O'Reilly">Tim O'Reilly</a>, who coined the term Web 2.0, proposed a long-term vision of the Semantic Web as a web of data, where sophisticated applications are navigating and manipulating it.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The data web transforms the World Wide Web from a <a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a> <a href="File_system" title="File system">file system</a> into a <a href="Distributed_database" title="Distributed database">distributed database</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="AGRIS" title="AGRIS">AGRIS</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_semantics_management" title="Business semantics management">Business semantics management</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Calais_(Reuters_product)" title="Calais (Reuters product)">Calais (Reuters product)</a></li>

<li><a href="DBpedia" title="DBpedia">DBpedia</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity%E2%80%93attribute%E2%80%93value_model" title="Entity–attribute–value model">Entity–attribute–value model</a></li>

<li><a href="EU_Open_Data_Portal" title="EU Open Data Portal">EU Open Data Portal</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">History of the World Wide Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperdata" title="Hyperdata">Hyperdata</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a></li>

<li><a href="Linked_data" title="Linked data">Linked data</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List of emerging technologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Nextbio" title="Nextbio">Nextbio</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_alignment" title="Ontology alignment">Ontology alignment</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_learning" title="Ontology learning">Ontology learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_computing" title="Semantic computing">Semantic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Geospatial_Web" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic Geospatial Web">Semantic Geospatial Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_heterogeneity" title="Semantic heterogeneity">Semantic heterogeneity</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_integration" title="Semantic integration">Semantic integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_matching" title="Semantic matching">Semantic matching</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_MediaWiki" title="Semantic MediaWiki">Semantic MediaWiki</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Sensor_Web" title="Semantic Sensor Web">Semantic Sensor Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_social_network" title="Semantic social network">Semantic social network</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_technology" title="Semantic technology">Semantic technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Web_(journal)" title="Semantic Web (journal)">Semantic Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantically-Interlinked_Online_Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantically-Interlinked Online Communities">Semantically-Interlinked Online Communities</a></li>

<li><a href="Smart-M3" title="Smart-M3">Smart-M3</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_Semantic_Web" title="Social Semantic Web">Social Semantic Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_resource" title="Web resource">Web resource</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_science" title="Web science">Web science</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Omar Alonso and Hugo Zaragoza. 2008. Exploiting semantic annotations in information retrieval: ESAIR '08. SIGIR Forum 42, 1 (June 2008), 55–58. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1394251.1394262">10.1145/1394251.1394262</a>

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<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Jaap Kamps, <a href="Jussi_Karlgren" title="Jussi Karlgren">Jussi Karlgren</a>, and Ralf Schenkel. 2011. Report on the third workshop on exploiting semantic annotations in information retrieval (ESAIR). SIGIR Forum 45, 1 (May 2011), 33–41. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1988852.1988858">10.1145/1988852.1988858</a>

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<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Jaap Kamps, <a href="Jussi_Karlgren" title="Jussi Karlgren">Jussi Karlgren</a>, Peter Mika, and Vanessa Murdock. 2012. Fifth workshop on exploiting semantic annotations in information retrieval: ESAIR '12). In Proceedings of the 21st ACM international conference on information and knowledge management (CIKM '12). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 2772–2773. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2396761.2398761">10.1145/2396761.2398761</a>

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<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Omar Alonso, Jaap Kamps, and <a href="Jussi_Karlgren" title="Jussi Karlgren">Jussi Karlgren</a>. 2015. Report on the Seventh Workshop on Exploiting Semantic Annotations in Information Retrieval (ESAIR '14). SIGIR Forum 49, 1 (June 2015), 27–34. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2795403.2795412">10.1145/2795403.2795412</a>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFLiyang_Yu2014" class="citation book cs1">Liyang Yu (December 14, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/computer/database+management+%26+information+retrieval/book/978-3-662-43795-7">A Developer's Guide to the Semantic Web, 2nd ed</a>. Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-662-43796-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aaron_Swartz_s_A_Programmable_Web_An_Unfinished_Work.pdf" class="extiw external" title="commons:File:Aaron Swartz s A Programmable Web An Unfinished Work.pdf">Aaron Swartz's A Programmable Web: An unfinished Work</a> donated by Morgan & Claypool Publishers after <a href="Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a>'s death in January 2013.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGrigoris_Antoniou,_Frank_van_Harmelen2008" class="citation book cs1">Grigoris Antoniou, <a href="Frank_van_Harmelen" title="Frank van Harmelen">Frank van Harmelen</a> (March 31, 2008). A Semantic Web Primer, 2nd Edition. The <a href="MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-01242-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAllemangHendlerGandon2020" class="citation book cs1">Allemang, Dean; Hendler, James; Gandon, Fabien (August 3, 2020). Semantic Web for the Working Ontologist : Effective Modeling for Linked Data, RDFS, and OWL (Third ed.). [New York, NY, USA]: ACM Books; 3rd edition. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1450376143</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPascal_HitzlerMarkus_KrötzschSebastian_Rudolph2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Pascal_Hitzler" title="Pascal Hitzler">Pascal Hitzler</a>; Markus Krötzsch; Sebastian Rudolph (August 25, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.semantic-web-book.org">Foundations of Semantic Web Technologies</a>. CRCPress. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4200-9050-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomas_B._Passin2004" class="citation book cs1">Thomas B. Passin (March 1, 2004). Explorer's Guide to the Semantic Web. Manning Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-932394-20-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey_T._Pollock2009" class="citation book cs1">Jeffrey T. Pollock (March 23, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470396797">Semantic Web For Dummies</a>. For Dummies. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-39679-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHitzler2021" class="citation journal cs1">Hitzler, Pascal (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3397512">"A Review of the Semantic Web Field"</a>. Communications of the ACM. 64 (2): 76–83. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3397512">10.1145/3397512</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFUnni2023" class="citation journal cs1">Unni, Deepak (March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rdcu.be/c7ogw">"FAIRification of health-related data using semantic web technologies in the Swiss Personalized Health Network"</a>. Scientific Data. 10 (1) 127. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023NatSD..10..127T">2023NatSD..10..127T</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41597-023-02028-y">10.1038/s41597-023-02028-y</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10006404">10006404</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36899064">36899064</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Database" title="Database">Databases</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic networks</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dataspaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataspaces">Dataspaces</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperdata" title="Hyperdata">Hyperdata</a></li>

<li><a href="Linked_data" title="Linked data">Linked data</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule-based_system" title="Rule-based system">Rule-based systems</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Semantic_analytics" title="Semantic analytics">Semantic analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_computing" title="Semantic computing">Semantic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_mapper" title="Semantic mapper">Semantic mapper</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_matching" title="Semantic matching">Semantic matching</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_publishing" title="Semantic publishing">Semantic publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_reasoner" title="Semantic reasoner">Semantic reasoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_search" title="Semantic search">Semantic search</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_service-oriented_architecture" title="Semantic service-oriented architecture">Semantic service-oriented architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_wiki" title="Semantic wiki">Semantic wiki</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid_(web_decentralization_project)" title="Solid (web decentralization project)">Solid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Description_logic" title="Description logic">Description logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">Folksonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Geotagging" title="Geotagging">Geotagging</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_architecture" title="Information architecture">Information architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="IXBRL" class="mw-redirect" title="IXBRL">iXBRL</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_extraction" title="Knowledge extraction">Knowledge extraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge management</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_2.0" title="Library 2.0">Library 2.0</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a></li>

<li><a href="Reference_(computer_science)" title="Reference (computer science)">References</a></li>

<li><a href="Topic_map" title="Topic map">Topic map</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_Science_Trust" title="Web Science Trust">Web Science Trust</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Syntax and supporting technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Semantic_triple" title="Semantic triple">triples</a></li>

<li><a href="Turtle_(syntax)" title="Turtle (syntax)">Turtle</a></li>

<li><a href="Notation3" title="Notation3">Notation3</a></li>

<li><a href="N-Triples" title="N-Triples">N-Triples</a></li>

<li><a href="TriX_(serialization_format)" title="TriX (serialization format)">TriX</a> (no W3C standard)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="SPARQL" title="SPARQL">SPARQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_HTML" title="Semantic HTML">Semantic HTML</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schemas, ontologies and rules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Common_Logic" title="Common Logic">Common Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule_Interchange_Format" title="Rule Interchange Format">Rule Interchange Format</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Web_Rule_Language" title="Semantic Web Rule Language">Semantic Web Rule Language</a></li>

<li><a href="SHACL" title="SHACL">SHACL</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semantic annotation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="COinS" title="COinS">COinS</a></li>

<li><a href="GRDDL" title="GRDDL">GRDDL</a></li>

<li><a href="Microdata_(HTML)" title="Microdata (HTML)">Microdata</a></li>

<li><a href="Microformat" title="Microformat">Microformats</a></li>

<li><a href="SAWSDL" title="SAWSDL">SAWSDL</a></li>

<li><a href="Facebook_Platform" title="Facebook Platform">Facebook Platform</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Common vocabularies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="BIBFRAME" title="BIBFRAME">BIBFRAME</a></li>

<li><a href="Dublin_Core" title="Dublin Core">Dublin Core</a></li>

<li><a href="Schema.org" title="Schema.org">Schema.org</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microformat vocabularies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="HAtom" title="HAtom">hAtom</a></li>

<li><a href="HCalendar" title="HCalendar">hCalendar</a></li>

<li><a href="HCard" title="HCard">hCard</a></li>

<li><a href="HProduct" title="HProduct">hProduct</a></li>

<li><a href="HRecipe" title="HRecipe">hRecipe</a></li>

<li><a href="HReview" title="HReview">hReview</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emerging_technologies167" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Emerging_technologies167" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">Information and communications</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ambient_intelligence" title="Ambient intelligence">Ambient intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Applications_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Applications of artificial intelligence">Applications of artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">Machine vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Progress_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Progress in artificial intelligence">Progress in artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Atomtronics" title="Atomtronics">Atomtronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_nanotube_field-effect_transistor" title="Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor">Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybermethodology" title="Cybermethodology">Cybermethodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc#Fourth-generation" title="Optical disc">Fourth-generation optical discs</a>

<ul><li><a href="3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">Holographic data storage</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="General-purpose_computing_on_graphics_processing_units" title="General-purpose computing on graphics processing units">GPGPU</a></li>

<li>Memory

<ul><li><a href="Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">ECRAM</a></li>

<li><a href="Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede</a></li>

<li><a href="Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li>

<li><a href="SONOS" title="SONOS">SONOS</a></li>

<li><a href="UltraRAM" title="UltraRAM">UltraRAM</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Optical_computing" title="Optical computing">Optical computing</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Chipless_RFID" title="Chipless RFID">Chipless RFID</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Software-defined_radio" title="Software-defined radio">Software-defined radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_technological_development" title="Differential technological development">Differential technological development</a></li>

<li><a href="Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics</a>

<li><a href="Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Robot ethics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering">Exploratory engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Proactionary_principle" title="Proactionary principle">Proactionary principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a>

<ul><li><a href="Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li>

<li><a href="Future-oriented_technology_analysis" title="Future-oriented technology analysis">Future-oriented technology analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li>

<li><a href="Moore's_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_scouting" title="Technology scouting">Technology scouting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technology_in_science_fiction" title="Technology in science fiction">Technology in science fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">Technology readiness level</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_roadmap" title="Technology roadmap">Technology roadmap</a></li>

<li><a href="Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Digital_humanities22" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Digital_humanities22" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_philosophy" title="Computational philosophy">Computational philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Computers_and_writing" title="Computers and writing">Computers and writing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_analytics" title="Cultural analytics">Cultural analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybertext" title="Cybertext">Cybertext</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_classics" title="Digital classics">Digital classics</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_history" title="Digital history">Digital history</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_Medievalist" title="Digital Medievalist">Digital Medievalist</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital ontology">Digital ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_physics" title="Digital physics">Digital physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_religion" title="Digital religion">Digital religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital rhetoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_scholarship" title="Digital scholarship">Digital scholarship</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_theology" title="Digital theology">Digital theology</a></li>

<li><a href="Digitization" title="Digitization">Digitization</a></li>

<li><a href="E-research" title="E-research">E-research</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_literature" title="Electronic literature">Electronic literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_informatics" title="Humanistic informatics">Humanistic informatics</a></li>

<li><a href="New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Philosophy of computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Text_Encoding_Initiative" title="Text Encoding Initiative">Text Encoding Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Transliteracy" title="Transliteracy">Transliteracy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54837#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2169" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54837#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2169" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1112076">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4688372-1">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2002000569">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb14521343b">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb14521343b">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01017771">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph222863&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX553987">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000076707&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007566353105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/f3a65941-8977-4913-b559-232ae7d99d8a">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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